Chapter 4
Chapter IV.
Second, on the vanity of malice in subjects according to a threefold distinction.
I turned myself to other things, etc. Above we treated the vanity of malice in prelates; here in subjects. The vanity of malice is touched upon here with regard to a threefold distinction: first, of calumny, in maliciously harming; second, of envy, in maliciously grieving, there: Again I contemplated; third, of sloth, in withdrawing from good work, and this is touched upon there: The fool folds.
(Verses 1, 2, 3). He therefore describes the emptiness of calumny; and with regard to the consideration of calumny he says: I turned myself to other things, supply: to be considered; and I saw the calumnies that are committed under the sun, that is, in this world: Ezekiel twenty-two: "The people of the land practiced extortion and seized by violence; they afflicted the needy and the poor and oppressed the stranger with calumny without justice." And calumny is called the violent extortion of goods, as if through justice, but through malice.
And he adds the aggravation of misery, on account of the calamity of the oppressed, because they are oppressed unjustly, inconsolably, irremediably.
Because unjustly, he says: And the tears of the innocent, namely on account of such calumnies: Job thirty-five: "Because of the multitude of oppressors they will cry out, and they will wail because of the violence of the arm of tyrants."
Because inconsolably: and no one to console them, which indeed aggravates the cruelty; whence Lamentations one: "There is none to comfort her among all her dear ones." On the contrary, Ecclesiasticus seven: "Do not fail those who weep in consolation, and walk with those who mourn."
Nor does he lack only consolation, but indeed a remedy; whence he also adds: Nor able to resist their violence, destitute of all assistance, supply: I saw. Of this malice it is said in Proverbs twenty-two: "Do not do violence to the poor because he is poor, nor crush the needy at the gate." Therefore 2 Chronicles twenty: "In us there is not such great strength that we can resist this multitude that rushes upon us."
But with regard to the detestation of fault he adds: And I praised the dead more than the living, namely because they do not see these evils and cruelties, which no good person can see and not grieve: 3 Kings nineteen, Elijah said: "It is enough for me, Lord; take my soul, for I am not better than my fathers."
And I judged happier than both, namely than the dead and the living, him who has not yet been born nor seen the evils that are under the sun; as though to see or to have seen these evils were a great misery: 1 Maccabees two: "Woe to me, said Mattathias, why was I born to see the destruction of my people and the destruction of the holy city, and to sit there?" -- Thus therefore there is noted here the consideration of calumny, the aggravation of misery, because they are oppressed, desolate, destitute of assistance, and then the detestation of fault.
(Verse 4.). I again contemplated etc. Here secondly is touched upon the vanity of envy, in grieving maliciously over the good and prosperity of one's neighbor, which he also saw; whence he adds: I again contemplated. This contemplation is a free, penetrating, and fixed gaze. I contemplated, I say, all the labors and industries of men: labors, as regards the body; and industries of men, as regards the soul.
Or: labors and industries, that is, virtues; whence another translation: Every virtue of work; above in chapter two: "I detested all my industry, by which I most diligently labored under the sun." And I observed, that is, I perceived in my mind, that they lie open, that is, are exposed, to the envy of one's neighbor, because the envious person, seeing good things, immediately grieves; Ecclesiasticus chapter fourteen: "Evil is the eye of the envious, turning away his face and despising his own soul." And in this therefore is vanity, namely of malice; Proverbs chapter twenty-eight: "The man who hastens to become rich and envies others," etc. And superfluous care, namely of punishment, because, when he ought to think about his own goods, he always thinks about those of others; whence Proverbs chapter twenty-three: "Do not eat with an envious man, and do not desire his foods, because like a diviner he reckons what he does not know."
(Verses 5, 6.). The fool folds etc. Here thirdly is touched upon the vanity of sloth, on account of which a man is rendered weary and lazy toward every good and thereby foolish. Therefore he says: The fool folds his hands; therefore a fool, because lazy; Proverbs chapter twelve: "He who pursues idleness is most foolish"; Proverbs chapter six: "Go to the ant, O sluggard, and learn wisdom." This fool folds his hands, because he refuses to work; Proverbs chapter twenty-six: "The sluggard hides his hands under his armpit and finds it labor if he brings them to his mouth." And from this, that he refuses to work, he becomes poor and thin on account of the want of poverty; whence he says: And he eats his own flesh, saying: this is said hyperbolically, because he becomes thin, not having food; Proverbs chapter twenty-one: "Desires kill the sluggard, for his hands refused to do anything."
But in this laziness of sloth he seems to himself to have an excuse of wisdom; whence he also adds, saying: Better is a handful with rest than both hands full with labor and affliction of spirit. This is the maxim of the sluggard, by which he excuses himself; whence it is said in Proverbs chapter twenty-six: "The sluggard seems wiser to himself than seven men who speak maxims." — And thus is intimated in the sluggard the torpor of sloth, because he folds his hands; the endurance of penury, because he eats his flesh; the excuse of ignorance, because he praises rest.
Questions.
I. The question is raised here concerning what he says: I praised the dead more than the living.
Against: 1. Below in chapter nine: A living dog is better than a dead lion.
2. Furthermore, this seems evident by reason: because a positive state is better than a privation, therefore life is better than death; therefore, from conjugates, the living are better off than the dead.
I respond: it must be said that to praise one thing more than another, or to prefer it, can be done in two ways: either absolutely, or with respect to some condition. Speaking absolutely, the living is preferred to the dead, unless the condition of blessedness is added; but with respect to something, the dead is preferred to the living: first, because he does not have so many occasions of sinning; whence the Apostle said in Romans 7: Unhappy man that I am, who will deliver me from the servitude of this body? Second, because he does not have so many occasions of sorrow, since he does not see so many evils; Jonah, last chapter: It is better for me to die than to live. And with respect to this condition, the dead is preferred to the living, to emphasize present evils and miseries.
II. Likewise, there is a question about what is said: I judged him who has not yet been born happier than both.
Against: 1. He has nothing good; therefore he is not happier.
2. Furthermore, everything that has in some way the character of happiness is to be desired; but no one can desire non-being, as Augustine says; therefore he who has not been born is in no way happy.
III. Likewise, it is asked whether anyone can will this, namely to prefer non-being to punishment, with a rightly ordered appetite.
That he can: Matthew 26: "It would have been better for him if he had not been born"; therefore if everything better is to be desired and preferred, so also is this.
That he cannot, it seems, because it takes away all good; therefore nothing is worse than that.
I respond: it must be said that happiness is in someone in two ways: truly and by estimation. Truly it is in one thing alone; by estimation it is in many things, according to diverse opinions and considerations and its conditions found in diverse things. For because it is the most delightful good, Epicurus therefore placed it in pleasures, and so with the others. Because, therefore, the happy person is troubled by no evil or misery, and this condition is found in him who has not yet been born, by reason of this condition he says: I judged happier, etc. I say also that by reason of that condition, it is desired by many who are afflicted.
As to what is asked, whether it ought to be desired or preferred: it must be said that punishment is twofold, temporal and eternal. Neither punishment takes away the whole, but nevertheless eternal punishment always diminishes it; corruption into non-being, however, takes away the whole, but only once. If, therefore, such corruption into non-being is compared to temporal punishment, it is absolutely worse; but if compared to eternal punishment, they stand as mutually exceeding, because the former exceeds in what it takes away, the latter in its continuance. And because the latter is infinite in duration, while the former is momentary, in this respect it exceeds and can more reasonably be fled and spurned.
IV. Likewise, a question is raised about what he says: I observed that all things are exposed to the envy of one's neighbor. I ask whether a man ought to cease from a good work on account of his neighbor's envy.
It seems that he should: because one's neighbor is to be loved more than any present advantage; therefore, if one's neighbor perishes through envying, that work ought to be omitted.
On the contrary: A good work provides a good example and stirs to good; therefore, if a good is to be made manifest for praise, a man ought not to conceal it on account of his neighbor's envy.
I respond: that work is either of necessity, or of utility. If of necessity, it is by no means to be abandoned. If of utility, either it can be done equally well in his absence as in his presence, or not: if so, a man ought to remove that work from his eyes, so as to take away the occasion, when he reasonably conjectures that the other envies; but if he cannot, he ought to do it, and he does not give the occasion, but the other takes it.
Art. 2. On the vanity of avarice, and first on the consideration of it.
Considering, I found etc. Above he treated the vanity of malice; here he treats the vanity of avarice: and first is set forth the consideration of avarice: second, because the avaricious man does not wish to have a companion, in detestation of it is set forth the commendation of the fellowship of another, at the passage: It is better therefore that two be together etc.
(Vers. 7. 8.). In the consideration therefore of the vanity of avarice he says: Considering, I found another vanity under the sun, namely another, because what was spoken above was of malice, but this is of avarice. - Whence he adds: There is one alone, and he has not a second, neither son nor brother, and he ought to be content with little as one who is alone, because he does not even wish to have a companion: Ecclesiasticus 11: "I have found rest for myself, and now I will eat of my goods alone"; and yet he is wholly consumed by avarice both in deed and desire and understanding. In deed: whence he says: And yet he does not cease to labor: Ecclesiasticus 31: "The rich man has labored in gathering substance." In desire: His eyes are not satisfied with riches: Ecclesiasticus 14: "The insatiable eye of the covetous in a portion of iniquity shall not be satisfied." In understanding: whence he adds: Nor does he reflect, saying: For whom do I labor and defraud my soul of good things? Psalm 38: "He stores up treasures and knows not for whom he shall gather them." From these things therefore he infers vanity: In this also there is vanity and a most grievous affliction: below in chapter 5: "Riches kept to the hurt of their owner: for they perish in a most grievous affliction."
Second, on the commendation of the fellowship of another.
(Vers. 9. 10. 11. 12.). It is better, therefore, that two be together etc. Here is touched upon secondly the commendation of the companionship of another, and this in detestation of the solicitude of avarice: on account of which he says: It is better, therefore, that two be together, although the avaricious man would prefer otherwise: and he subjoins the reason: For they have the advantage of mutual companionship: and therefore, in Luke 10, the Lord "sent the disciples two by two before his face."
And he shows a threefold advantage: namely in raising up, in preserving, and in defending. On account of raising up he says: If one falls, he will be supported by the other: Deuteronomy 22: "If you see the donkey of your brother fallen on the road, you shall not despise it, but shall lift it up with him." The solitary man lacks this benefit: therefore he adds: Woe to him who is alone, because when he falls, he has no one to raise him up, and therefore he is wretched: whence in the Psalm: "Look upon me and have mercy on me, for I am alone and poor."
As for the advantage in preserving he adds: And if two sleep together, they will warm each other, that is, they will be preserved from the cold: Ephesians 5: "No one has hated his own flesh, but nourishes and cherishes it." The solitary man lacks this benefit: whence he adds: One alone, if he sleeps, how will he be warmed? An example of this: in 3 Kings 1 it is said that David had grown old and could not be warmed, and it is added that they sought Abishag the Shunammite, who slept in the bosom of the king and warmed him: by himself he could not be warmed, since he was alone.
As for the advantage in defending he adds: And if anyone prevails against one, two will resist him, and thus it avails for defense: 2 Kings 10: "If the Syrians prevail against me, you shall be an aid to me: but if the sons of Ammon prevail against you, I will come to your aid." And this indeed he makes manifest by an example: A threefold cord is not easily broken. Just as a cord joined to a cord is stronger, so also is a man: Proverbs 18: "A brother who is helped by a brother is like a strong city."
Spiritually here is noted the threefold effect of charity, namely mutual raising up, mutual consolation and mutual defense. On account of raising up he says: If one falls: Galatians, the last chapter: "If a man is overtaken in any fault, you who are spiritual, instruct such a one in the spirit of meekness": whence it is said in Ecclesiasticus 37: "Set the heart of good counsel with you."
On account of consolation he says: They will warm each other: 1 Thessalonians 5: "Comfort the fainthearted": and in the same, chapter 2: "We became little ones in your midst, as if a nurse were to cherish her children."
On account of defense he says: Two will resist: Isaiah 50: "Let us stand together: who is my adversary"?
On account of this threefold effect of charity it is called a threefold cord: Hosea 11: "I will draw you with the cords of Adam, with the bonds of charity."
Questions.
I. Here it is asked concerning the solitary life, whether it should be preferred to companionship. That it should, it seems:
1. Because it is said in Lamentations 3 concerning the good youth: He shall sit alone and keep silence: therefore it is good to be alone.
2. Furthermore, Bernard says: "As often as I have been among men, I returned less a man": therefore it is not good to be among men.
3. Likewise, whoever is in companionship must necessarily be anxious about how to conform himself to the companionship: but the Apostle says in 1 Corinthians 7 that it is good not to marry in order to avoid anxiety about pleasing a wife: therefore likewise it is good to flee all companionship.
On the contrary: 1. Genesis 2: It is not good for man to be alone: therefore solitude is blameworthy, and by the opposite, companionship is praiseworthy.
2. Likewise, Matthew 18: Where two or three are gathered in my name, there I am in the midst of them: he does not say: where one, but where two or three: therefore life in congregation is better than the solitary life.
3. Likewise, this is proved by this text, because companionship supports, warms, and defends, which are three goods of which the solitary are deprived.
I respond: it must be said that solitude is threefold: one through lack of love, as the miser does not wish to have a companion in riches, nor the envious in goods, nor the proud in great things: and this solitude is altogether evil. Another solitude is through want of consolation, as it is said in the Psalm: I am alone and poor, and this is wretched. And there is another solitude through the quiet of contemplation, and this is praiseworthy and honorable.
Similarly, companionship exists in a threefold manner: one namely that disturbs and hinders, as the companionship of the wicked: another needing support and solace, as the companionship of wives and the infirm: and another that aids and advances, as the companionship of the perfect. The first is to be fled, the second to be tolerated, but the third to be sought: and this exists in religious life. When therefore Scripture commends companionship, it is understood of this kind: and this does not conflict with the solitude of contemplation, because Bernard says on the Canticles: "Among many a man can be entirely alone, if he flees curiosity."
And thus the objections are answered.
Art. 3. On the vanity of imprudence, which is first to be detested on account of present evil.
Better is a child, etc. He treated above of the vanity of malice and avarice: here he treats of the vanity of imprudence: and because the vanity of imprudence is culpable and detestable, therefore he inveighs against it in two ways: first, on account of present evil: second, on account of succeeding or consequent evil, at: I saw all the living.
(Vers. 13. 14.). The present evil accompanying imprudence is that it subjects a rich and elderly king to a poor boy who possesses prudence, and this indeed is a great vanity. And therefore he says: Better is a poor and wise boy than an old and foolish king, although the latter surpasses in power, surpasses in wealth, surpasses even in age; below in chapter ten: "More precious is wisdom and a little glory for a time than folly"; and Proverbs twelve: "Better is a poor man who is sufficient for himself than a boastful man who lacks bread." And he explains what he said: foolish, because he has a deficiency of foresight regarding the future, which is one part of prudence: whence he says: Who does not know how to foresee for the future, namely the outcome of events: Deuteronomy thirty-two: "Would that they were wise and understood and foresaw the last things."
That from prison and chains sometimes one goes forth to a kingdom: Wisdom ten: "She did not abandon the just man who was sold into bondage, but freed him from sinners, until she brought him the scepter of the kingdom." And another, born to a kingdom, is consumed by want, and this on account of his pride: Ecclesiasticus ten: "The Lord has destroyed the thrones of proud rulers and has made the meek to sit in their place."
Second, it is to be detested on account of the succeeding evil.
(Vers. 15. 16.). I saw all the living. Here is touched upon secondly the evil succeeding upon it on account of his imprudence, because he himself is cast down and another is exalted: whence he says: I saw all the living who walk under the sun, that is, many or innumerable, hyperbolically, with the second youth, that is, who follows him in the kingdom: whence he says: who shall rise up in his place. And so others follow the succeeding youth, despising the old man. The example is of David, who rose up to the kingdom of Saul, whom the children of Israel followed, having abandoned the house of Saul, as is said in Second Kings five, that all came to David.
And the reason why they follow the youth, having abandoned the old man, is because the foolish old man did good to no one; and the following text implies this: Infinite is the number of the people of all who were before him, that is, before the coming of the youth they were under the foolish king and adhered to him. And those who shall be afterwards, supply: those adhering to the old man, shall not rejoice in him, that is, in the foolish old man, because he did good to no one nor will he, because he does not know how: Ecclesiasticus twenty: "The fool shall have no friend, nor shall there be gratitude for his goods; for he does not distribute with right judgment what ought to be given." And from this he concludes vanity: whence he says: But this also is vanity and affliction of spirit, that is, another vanity from those previously mentioned, above in chapter one: "I saw all things that are done under the sun, and behold, all is vanity"; and the reason is subjoined: "The perverse are corrected with difficulty, and the number of fools is infinite." - And thus the section on the vanity of fault is concluded.
Spiritually, this can also be expounded concerning Christ. The poor and wise child is Christ, a child on account of innocence: whence Isaiah forty-two, according to another reading: "Behold, my child, my chosen one, my soul is well pleased in him." Poor, because he was made needy for us: Second Corinthians eight: "You know, brothers, the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, that for your sake he became poor, though he was rich." Wise, indeed Wisdom itself, First Corinthians one: "We proclaim Christ the power of God and the wisdom of God"; and below in chapter nine: "There was found in it a poor and wise man."
The old and foolish king is the devil, who is old; Job forty: "He is the beginning of the ways of God": whence "he has grown old in evil days." A king, because he reigns among the wicked: whence Job forty-one: "He is king over all the children of pride." Foolish, because he undertook what he could not accomplish: whence Isaiah fourteen, he said: "I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my throne above the stars of God." Although he is most cunning at deceiving, he nevertheless does not know how to foresee that one goes forth from prison to reign, so that Christ goes forth from the prison of the flesh and from the bonds of the Passion to the kingdom of heavenly glory: Hebrews one: "He sits at the right hand of the Majesty on high." Even the devil, born into the kingdom, that is, to possess the kingdom, is consumed by want, as it is said in Colossians two: "Despoiling principalities and powers, he led them away openly."
And what follows is an explanation of the preceding. And I saw all the living under the sun with the second youth, that is, Christ: John twelve: "Behold, the whole world has gone after him." He rises up because he cast the devil out of the kingdom: John twelve: "Now is the judgment of the world, now shall the prince of this world be cast out." The infinite number of men who were before him, that is, before the coming of Christ: and the faithful, who shall come after, will not rejoice in him, that is, in the foolish king, that is, the devil, because they rejoiced only in Christ: whence the Apostle, the last chapter of Philippians: "Rejoice in the Lord always." One must rejoice in the Lord, not in the devil.
Part Two, Section II. On the threefold remedy against the threefold vanity of fault, that is, against the evil that follows upon malice.
Guard your foot. Above, the va- fo. nity of fault was treated. Since that vanity is deadly and pestilential, therefore here the remedy against that vanity is treated. And because a threefold vanity preceded, namely of malice, avarice, and imprudence, therefore here he sets forth three remedies. And first he gives the remedy against malice: second, against avarice, at the passage: The covetous man shall not be satisfied: third, against imprudence, at the passage: What more has he etc. But since the disease of malice is in itself irremediable and can further corrupt others, therefore the remedy is set forth here not against malice, but against the corruption of malice or the evil that follows in others from the sight of another's malice.
Art. 1. On the remedy against the vanity of malice, from which arises a threefold disorder.
From this there arises a threefold disorder, namely: in deed, through the disobedience of transgression: in speech, through the foolishness of utterance: in the heart, through erroneous thought. Into all of which the incautious observer of another's malice rushes headlong. For when someone considers the wicked unpunished, he believes there is no providence: behold, erroneous thought: and through this he freely speaks foolish things, because he believes there is no one to reprove: and further he transgresses the commandments, because he does not believe there is one who punishes.
First, therefore, he gives the remedy against disobedience: second, against foolish speech, at the passage: Do not rashly speak anything etc.: third, against erroneous thought, at the passage: If you see the oppressions of the poor etc.
First, the remedy against disobedience is given.
(Verse 17.) In the remedy against disobedience, an exhortation is introduced, and the reason for the exhortation is subjoined. He exhorts to diligent guarding of the feet, lest one transgress the divine commandments; therefore he says: Guard your foot, lest perhaps it turn aside from the right way: Hebrews 12 : "Make straight steps with your feet, that no one limping may go astray." Entering the house of God, that is, into the Church, or into the service of God, into which a man ought to enter with fear; whence in the Psalm: "I will enter into your house, and I will worship toward your holy temple in your fear." Thus he ought to keep his foot from disobedience and have it ready for obedience; on account of which he says: And draw near, that you may hear, that is, obey: draw near, because Deuteronomy 33 : "Those who draw near to his feet shall receive of his teaching"; hear, by obeying: Jeremiah 17: "Hear the word of the Lord, all you who enter through these gates. Thus says the Lord: guard your souls."
And there is subjoined the reason for the exhortation: For obedience is much better than the sacrifices of fools, who do not know what evil they do, who do not recognize their transgressions nor care to obey. Gregory: "Obedience is better than sacrifices, because in obedience one's own will is slain, in sacrifice the flesh of another." Improper is the comparison, because obedience is good, and therefore pleasing; whence Lamentations 3: "It is good for a man when he has borne the yoke from his youth"; but the sacrifices of fools displease: Proverbs 15: "The sacrifices of the wicked are abominable to the Lord"; whence Saul was rebuked, because out of love of offering he transgressed the divine command: 1 Kings 15: "Does the Lord desire holocausts or sacrifices, and not rather that he be obeyed? For obedience is better than sacrifices, and to hearken rather than to offer the fat of rams."