Opusculum de reductione artium ad theologiam
SHORT TREATISE ON THE REDUCTION OF THE ARTS TO THEOLOGY
1. Every best gift and every perfect gift is from above, coming down from the Father of lights,
James in the first chapter of his Epistle. In this word is touched the origin of every illumination, and together with this is intimated the generous emanation of manifold light from that fontal light. Although, however, every illumination of knowledge is internal, we can nevertheless reasonably distinguish, so that we may say that there is a light that is exterior,
namely the light of mechanical art; a light that is inferior,
namely the light of sensitive knowledge; a light that is interior,
namely the light of philosophical knowledge; a light that is superior,
namely the light of grace and Sacred Scripture. The first light illuminates with respect to artificial form,
the second with respect to natural form,
the third with respect to intellectual truth,
the fourth and last with respect to salvific truth.
2. The first light, therefore, which illuminates with respect to artificial forms,
which are, as it were, exterior and devised for the purpose of supplying the needs of the body, is called the light of mechanical art;
which, because it is in a certain way servile and falls short of philosophical knowledge, can rightly be called exterior.
And it is divided into seven according to the seven mechanical arts, which Hugh assigns in the Didascalicon, which are namely weaving, armament, agriculture, hunting, navigation, medicine, and theatrical art.
Their sufficiency
is understood as follows. Since every mechanical art is either for solace
or for advantage:
that is, either for excluding sorrow
or want:
that is, it either profits
or delights,
according to that saying of Horace:
Poets wish either to profit or to delight.
And again:
He has gained every point who has mingled the useful with the pleasant.
If it is for solace
and delight, thus it is theatrical art,
which is the art of entertainment, containing every manner of play, whether in songs, or in instruments, or in fictions, or in bodily gestures.
If, however, it is ordered to advantage
or profit with respect to the exterior man, this can be either with respect to covering,
or with respect to nourishment,
or with respect to the aid of both.
If with respect to covering,
either it is of soft and smooth material, and thus it is weaving:
or of hard and strong material, and thus it is armament
or the smith's art, which contains every armament fashioned either from iron, or from any metal, or from stone, or from wood.
If indeed it assists with regard to food,
this can be in two ways: because we are nourished by plants,
or by animals.
If with regard to plants,
then it is agriculture:
if with regard to animals,
then it is hunting.
- Or alternatively: if it assists with regard to food,
this can be in two ways: either it assists with regard to the generation
and multiplication of foods, and then it is agriculture; or with regard to the manifold preparation
of food, and thus it is hunting, which contains every kind of preparing foods and drinks and flavors, which pertains to bakers, cooks, and innkeepers. It is named, however, from one part alone on account of a certain excellence and refinement.
If, however, it serves as an aid to both,
this is in two ways: either by supplying a deficiency,
and thus it is navigation,
under which is contained all commerce
whether of things pertaining to covering or to nourishment; or by removing impediment
and harm, and thus it is medicine,
whether it consists in the compounding of electuaries, or of potions, or of ointments, or in the treatment of wounds, or in the cutting of members, as is surgery. - Theatrical art, however, is unique. And thus the sufficiency is evident.
3. The second light, which illuminates us for apprehending natural forms,
is the light of sensitive knowledge,
which is rightly called inferior,
because sensitive knowledge begins from what is lower and occurs by the benefit of corporeal light. And this is fivefold according to the five senses.
Augustine derives their sufficiency
according to the nature of the light of the elements in the third book on Genesis in this manner: because light or luminosity serving for the distinction of corporeal things either exists in the eminence of its own property
and a certain purity, and thus it is the sense of sight;
or it is mingled with air,
and thus it is hearing:
or with vapor,
and thus it is smell:
or with moisture,
and thus it is taste:
or with the grossness of earth,
and thus it is touch.
For the sensible spirit has the nature of light, whence it thrives in the nerves, whose nature is clear and permeable; and in these five senses it is multiplied according to greater and lesser purification. And so since there are five simple bodies of the world, namely the four elements and the fifth essence, so that man might perceive all corporeal forms, he has five senses corresponding to them: because no apprehension occurs except through some likeness and agreement between organ and object, inasmuch as sense is a determinate nature.
There is also another way of deriving the sufficiency of the senses, but Augustine approves this one, and it seems reasonable, because for this sufficiency there concur together correspondences on the part of the organ, the medium, and the object.
4. The third light, which illuminates for the searching out of intelligible truths, is the light of philosophical knowledge, which is therefore called interior because it inquires into interior and hidden causes, and this through the principles of the disciplines and of natural truth, which are naturally implanted in man. And this is threefold, divided into rational, natural, and moral. - And its sufficiency can be taken thus. For there is truth of discourse, truth of things, and truth of morals. Rational philosophy considers the truth of discourse, natural the truth of things, moral the truth of morals.
Or otherwise: just as in the most high God one may consider the notion of efficient cause, formal or exemplary cause, and final cause, because "He is the cause of subsisting, the ground of understanding, and the order of living"; so in the very illumination of philosophy, since it illuminates either for knowing the causes of being, and thus it is physics; or the grounds of understanding, and thus it is logic; or the order of living, and thus it is moral or practical philosophy.
In a third way thus: because the light of philosophical knowledge illuminates the intellective power itself; and this can be in three ways: either insofar as it governs the motive power, and thus it is moral; or insofar as it governs itself, and thus it is natural; or insofar as it governs the interpretive power, and thus it is sermonic; so that man may be illuminated unto the truth of life, unto the truth of knowledge, and unto the truth of doctrine.
And since in three ways one can express through discourse what one holds within oneself, namely to make known the concept of one's mind, or further to move to belief, or to move to love or hatred: therefore sermonic or rational philosophy is threefold, namely grammar, logic, and rhetoric; of which the first is for expressing, the second for teaching, the third for moving. The first regards reason as apprehensive; the second, as judicative; the third, as motive. And because reason apprehends through fitting discourse, judges through true discourse, and moves through ornate discourse: hence it is that this threefold science considers these three properties concerning discourse.
Again, since our intellect must be directed in judging according to formal principles, and these can be considered in a threefold manner: either in comparison to matter,
and thus they are called formal principles:
or in comparison to the soul,
and thus intellectual:
or in comparison to the divine wisdom,
and thus ideal:
therefore natural
philosophy is divided into three: into physics properly so called,
into mathematics,
and into metaphysics;
so that physical
consideration concerns the generation and corruption of things according to natural powers and seminal principles; mathematical
concerns the consideration of abstractible forms according to intelligible principles: metaphysical,
the knowledge of all beings, which it reduces to one first principle, from which they proceeded according to ideal principles,
that is, to God insofar as He is principle, end,
and exemplar:
although among metaphysicians there has been no small controversy concerning such ideal principles.
Finally, since the governance of the motive
power must be attended to in a threefold manner, namely with respect to one's own life,
with respect to the family,
and with respect to the subject multitude;
therefore moral
philosophy is divided into three, namely into monastic, economic,
and political;
which are distinguished according to the threefold mode aforesaid, as is apparent from the names themselves.
5. The fourth light, however, which illumines unto saving truth,
is the light of Sacred Scripture,
which is therefore called superior,
because it leads to higher things by manifesting those things which are above reason, and also because it descends not through human discovery but through inspiration from the Father of lights.
Although this light is one
according to the literal sense,
it is nevertheless threefold according to the mystical
and spiritual sense. For in all the books of Sacred Scripture, beyond the literal
sense which the words outwardly convey, a threefold spiritual sense is conceived,
namely the allegorical,
by which we are taught what is to be believed concerning the Divinity and humanity: the moral,
by which we are taught how we ought to live: and the anagogical,
by which we are taught how we are to cling to God. Whence all of Sacred Scripture teaches these three things, namely the eternal generation and incarnation of Christ, the order of living, and the union of God and the soul. The first pertains to faith,
the second to morals,
the third to the end of both.
Upon the first the study of doctors ought to labor, upon the second the study of preachers, upon the third the study of contemplatives. The first Augustine teaches above all, the second Gregory teaches above all, the third Dionysius teaches. - Anselm follows Augustine, Bernard follows Gregory, Richard follows Dionysius, because Anselm excels in reasoning, Bernard in preaching, Richard in contemplation. - Hugh, however, excels in all of these.
6. From the foregoing it is gathered that, although from the primary division the light descending from above is fourfold, there are nevertheless six differences of it: namely, the light of sacred Scripture, the light of sensitive cognition, the light of mechanical art, the light of rational philosophy, the light of natural philosophy, and the light of moral philosophy. And therefore there are six illuminations in this life, and they have an evening, because all knowledge shall be destroyed; and therefore the seventh day of rest succeeds them, which has no evening, namely, the illumination of glory.
7. Whence these six illuminations can very fittingly be reduced to the six days of formation or illumination in which the world was made, so that the knowledge of sacred Scripture corresponds to the first formation, namely, the formation of light: and so on in order.
And just as all those had their origin from one light, so all these cognitions are ordered to the knowledge of sacred Scripture, are enclosed in it and are perfected in it, and through it are ordered to the eternal illumination. Whence all our knowledge ought to have its rest in the knowledge of sacred Scripture, and especially as regards the understanding of anagogy, through which illumination is referred back to God, whence it had its origin. And therefore there the circle is completed, the six is completed, and consequently there is rest.
8. Let us see, therefore, how the other illuminations of knowledge are to be reduced to the light of sacred Scripture. And first let us consider the illumination of sensitive cognition, which is wholly concerned with the cognition of sensible things, where three things are to be considered: the medium of cognition, the exercise of cognition, and the delight of cognition.
If we consider the medium of cognition, we shall behold therein the Word eternally generated and incarnate in time. For no sensible thing moves the cognitive power except through a likeness which proceeds from the object, as offspring from a parent; and this is necessary, whether generally, really, or exemplarily, in every sense. But that likeness does not bring about the completion of the act of sensing unless it is united with the organ and the power: and when it is united, a new perception arises, and through that perception a reduction to the object is effected by means of that likeness. And although the object is not always sensed, nevertheless it always, insofar as it is in itself, generates a likeness, when it is in its completeness.
In this same way understand that from the supreme Mind, which is knowable by the interior senses of our mind, there eternally emanated a Likeness, Image, and Offspring: and He afterwards, when the fullness of time came, was united to a mind and flesh and received the form of man, which He had never been before: and through Him all our minds which receive that Likeness of the Father through faith in the heart are reduced to God.
9. If indeed we consider the exercise of the senses, we shall perceive therein the order of living. For each sense exercises itself upon its proper object, flees what is harmful to it, and does not usurp what belongs to another. - In this manner, then, the sense of the heart lives in an ordered way when it exercises itself toward that for which it exists, against negligence; when it flees what is harmful to it, against concupiscence; and when it does not usurp what belongs to another, against pride. For every disorder comes either from negligence, or from concupiscence, or from pride. For he lives in an ordered manner who lives prudently, temperately, and obediently, so as to flee negligence in matters of action, concupiscence in matters of desire, and pride in matters of excellence.
10. If moreover we consider the delight, we shall perceive the union of God and the soul. For every sense seeks its fitting sensible object with desire, finds it with joy, and returns to it without weariness, because the eye is not satisfied with seeing, nor is the ear filled with hearing.
In this manner also, the sense of our heart, whether it be the beautiful, the harmonious, the fragrant, the sweet, or the soothing, ought to seek with desire, find with joy, and return to without ceasing.
Behold how in sensitive knowledge divine wisdom is contained in a hidden way, and how wondrous is the contemplation of the five spiritual senses according to their conformity to the bodily senses.
11. In this manner it is possible to find in the illumination of mechanical art, whose entire intention is directed toward the production of artifacts. In which we can perceive these three things, namely the generation and incarnation of the Word, the order of living, and the covenant of God and the soul. And this, if we consider the origin, the effect, and the fruit; or thus: the art of working, the quality of the artifact produced, and the usefulness of the fruit derived.
12. If we consider the origin, we shall see that the artificial product proceeds from the artisan by means of a likeness existing in his mind, through which the artisan conceives before he produces, and then produces as he has planned. Moreover, the artisan produces an exterior work conformed to the interior exemplar as closely as he can; and if he could produce such a product that would love and know him, he would certainly do so; and if that product were to know its maker, this would be by means of the likeness according to which it proceeded from the artisan; and if it had darkened eyes of knowledge, so that it could not raise itself above itself, it would be necessary, in order that it might be led to knowledge of its maker, that the likeness through which the product had been produced should condescend to that nature which could be grasped and known by it.
By this manner understand that from the supreme Artisan no creature proceeded except through the eternal Word, "in whom He disposed all things," and through whom He produced not only creatures having the nature of a vestige,
but also of an image,
so that they might be assimilated to Him through knowledge and love. And since through sin the rational creature had the eye of contemplation clouded over, it was most fitting that the eternal and invisible should become visible and assume flesh, in order to lead us back to the Father. And this is what is said in John fourteen: No one comes to the Father except through me;
and Matthew eleven: No one knows the Father except the Son, and anyone to whom the Son wills to reveal Him.
And therefore it is said the Word was made flesh.
Considering therefore the illumination of mechanical art with respect to the production of the work, we shall behold therein the Word begotten and incarnate, that is, the Divinity and the humanity and the integrity of the whole faith.
13. If moreover we consider the effect,
we shall behold the order of living.
For every artisan intends to produce a work that is beautiful and useful and enduring; and then the work is precious and acceptable when it has these three conditions. -
In accordance with these three, it is necessary that three things be found in the order of living, namely, " to know, to will,
and to act unchangeably or perseveringly
" . Knowledge
renders the work beautiful, will
renders it useful, perseverance
renders it enduring. The first resides in the rational power, the second in the concupiscible, the third in the irascible.
14. If we consider the fruit,
we shall find the union of God and the soul.
For every artisan who makes some work either makes it so that through it he may be praised, or so that through it something may be procured
or gained for himself, or so that he may delight
in it, according to the three things that are among desirable goods, namely the honorable
good, the useful,
and the delectable
. - For these three reasons God made the rational soul: that it might praise
Him, that it might serve
Him, that it might delight
and rest in Him; and this is through charity, in which he who abides, abides in God, and God in him,
so that there is a certain wondrous union, and from that union a wondrous delight; for, as it is said in Proverbs, my delights are to be with the children of men.
- Behold how the illumination of mechanical art is a path to the illumination of Sacred Scripture, and there is nothing in it that does not proclaim true wisdom. And therefore Sacred Scripture quite rightly makes frequent use of such similitudes.
15. According to this same manner one may also find in the illumination of rational philosophy,
whose principal concern turns upon discourse.
In which there are three things to consider according to the threefold consideration of discourse itself, namely with respect to the speaker,
by reason of the utterance,
and with respect to the hearer
or by reason of the end.
16. If we consider speech in relation to the speaker,
we see that every speech signifies a concept of the mind,
and that interior concept is the word of the mind and its offspring, which is known even to the one conceiving it. But in order that it may become known to the hearer, it puts on the form of voice, and the intelligible word by means of that garment becomes sensible and is heard outwardly and is received in the ear of the hearer's heart, and yet does not depart from the mind of the one uttering it.
According to this mode we see in the eternal Word that the Father eternally conceived it by generating, according to that passage of Proverbs eight: The depths did not yet exist, and I was already conceived.
But in order that it might become knowable to sense-bound man, it put on the form of flesh, and the Word was made flesh and dwelt among us,
and yet remained in the bosom of the Father.
17. If indeed we consider speech by reason of itself,
we shall perceive in it the order of living.
For three things necessarily concur for the completion of speech, namely congruity, truth,
and ornament.
And according to these three, every action of ours ought to have measure, form,
and order;
so that it may be regulated
by modesty in outward work, comely
by purity in affection, ordered
and adorned by rectitude in intention. For then one lives rightly and in due order when intention is right, affection is pure, and action is modest.
18. If indeed we consider speech by reason of its end, it is for expressing,
for instructing,
and for moving;
but it never expresses
anything except by means of a species, never teaches
except by means of a demonstrative light, never moves
except by means of a power: and it is clear that this does not happen except through a species, a light, and a power that are intrinsic, intrinsically united to the soul:
and therefore Augustine concludes that he alone is the true teacher who can impress a species, infuse a light, and give power to the heart of the hearer. And hence it is that "he who inwardly teaches hearts has his chair in heaven."
Just as, therefore, nothing is perfectly known through speech except by means of a power, light, and species united to the soul; so in order that the soul may be instructed unto the knowledge of God through his internal speech, it is necessary that it be united to him who is the splendor of glory and the figure of his substance, upholding all things by the word of his power
.
From this it is clear how wondrous is this contemplation, through which Augustine in many books leads by the hand to divine wisdom.
19. According to this same mode also, one may find in the illumination of natural philosophy,
whose principal intention turns upon formal reasons
in matter,
in the soul,
and in divine wisdom.
These may be considered in three ways, namely according to the relation of proportion,
according to the effect of causality,
and according to the medium of union:
and according to these three the three aforesaid are to be found.
20. If we consider them according to the relation of proportion, we shall see in them the eternal Word and the Word incarnate. Intellectual and abstract reasons are, as it were, intermediate between seminal and ideal reasons. But seminal reasons cannot exist in matter without there being in it a generation and production of form; similarly, neither can intellectual reasons exist in the soul without there being a generation of a word in the mind; therefore, neither can ideal reasons exist in God without there being a production of the Word from the Father according to a right proportion; for this pertains to dignity, and if it befits the creature, much more strongly can it be inferred of the Creator. On account of which Augustine said that the Son of God is "the art of the Father." - Again, the appetite that is in matter is ordered to intellectual reasons, so that in no way is generation perfect unless the rational soul is united to corporeal matter. - By a similar reasoning, therefore, it can be argued that the highest and most noble perfection in the universe cannot exist unless the nature in which seminal reasons reside, and the nature in which intellectual reasons reside, and the nature in which ideal reasons reside, come together simultaneously in the unity of one person, which was accomplished in the incarnation of the Son of God. - Therefore all natural philosophy, through the relation of proportion, proclaims the Word of God begotten and incarnate, so that the same is the Alpha and Omega, begotten, namely, in the beginning and before all ages, but incarnate at the end of the ages.
21. If, however, we consider these reasons according to the effect of causality, we shall discern the order of living: since generation cannot take place in generable and corruptible matter according to seminal reasons except by the benefit of the light of the supracelestial bodies, which are remote from generation and corruption, namely, the sun, moon, and stars.
In this same manner, the soul cannot produce living works unless it receives from the sun, that is, from Christ, the benefit of gratuitous light, and unless it obtains the patronage of the moon itself, that is, of the Virgin Mary, the Mother of Christ, and unless it imitates the examples of the other Saints, from whose concurrence there is gathered together in it a living and perfect work. Whence the order of living depends upon these three things.
22. If, moreover, we consider these reasons according to the medium of union, we shall understand in what manner the union of the soul to God takes place. For corporeal nature cannot be united to the soul except through moisture, through spirit, and through heat, which three things dispose the flesh to receive life from the soul.
According to this, it is likewise understood that God does not grant life to the soul nor is He united to it unless it be moist through the sighing of compunction and devotion, unless it be spiritual through contempt of all earthly things, unless it be warm through desire for the heavenly homeland and for the Beloved Himself. - Behold how in natural philosophy the wisdom of God lies hidden.
23. According to the aforesaid modes, one can find in the illumination of moral philosophy the light of sacred Scripture: since the intention of moral philosophy is principally concerned with rectitude: for it is concerned with general justice, which, as Anselm says, "is rectitude of the will." Now the right can be defined in three ways, and according to this the three aforementioned things shine forth in the consideration of rectitude. In one way, that is called "right whose middle does not depart from the extremes." If therefore in God there is supreme rectitude both in Himself, and insofar as He is the principle, and insofar as He is the end of all things: it is necessary to posit in God a middle Person in Himself, so that one Person only produces, another is only produced, and the middle one both produces and is produced. It is also necessary to posit a middle in the egress and return of things; but the middle in egress must hold more to the side of the one producing, while the middle in return holds more to the side of the one returning: just as therefore things went forth from God through the Word of God, so for a complete return it is necessary that the Mediator of God and men be not only God, but also man, so that He might lead men back to God.
24. In another way, that is called right which conforms itself to the one directing it. And according to this, in the consideration of rectitude the order of living is discerned. For he lives rightly who is directed according to the rules of divine law. And this is when the will of man assents to necessary precepts, salutary admonitions, and perfect counsels, so that man may prove what is the good and acceptable and perfect will of God. And then there is a right order of living, in which no crookedness can be found.
25. In the third way, that is called right whose summit is raised upward, as man has an upright stature. And according to this, in the consideration of rectitude the union of God and the soul is made manifest. For since God is above, it is necessary that the apex of the mind itself be raised upward. And this is when the rational power assents to the first truth for its own sake and above all things, when the irascible power rests upon the supreme bounty, and when the concupiscible power clings to goodness: then he who in this way clings to God is one spirit with Him.
26. And thus it is clear how the manifold wisdom of God, which is clearly handed down in sacred Scripture, lies hidden in all knowledge and in all nature. It is also clear how all branches of knowledge serve theology; and therefore theology itself takes up examples and uses terms pertaining to every kind of knowledge. It is also clear how broad the illuminative way is, and how in every thing that is sensed or that is known, God Himself lies hidden within.
And this is the fruit of all the sciences: that in all things faith may be built up, God may be honored,
morals may be ordered, consolations may be drawn, which are found in the union of the bridegroom and the bride, which union is indeed brought about through charity, to which the entire intention of Sacred Scripture is directed, and consequently every illumination descending from above, and without which all knowledge is vain, because one never arrives at the Son except through the Holy Spirit, who teaches us all truth: who is blessed forever and ever. Amen.